110.Essay Writing Format, structure and Examples. “Methodological Approaches for Environment & Ecology Analysis”

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Methodological Approaches for Environment & Ecology Analysis

Scientific Social Research

It would be difficult to comprehend the nature and content of research without an appreciation of the method we designate as scientific.  Research, simply put is an endeavour to discover the intellectual and practical answer to problems through the application of scientific methods to the knowable universe.  The scientific methods increase the likelihood of answering questions related to WHAT, HOW AND WHY in an enquiry.

Einstein and Infield state the essence of science in the following words – “Science is the attempt of the human mind to find a connection between the world of ideas and the world of phenomena.  All the essential ideas in science were born in the dramatic conflict between reality and our attempt at understanding the same.”

This does not mean, however, that science will always come out with an answer….. Thompson observes “The belief that science has explained everything is a hopeless misunderstanding.”  There may be many paths leading to truth, however scientific is entails more understandable and reliable. Meaning of Research, therefore, is ‘A careful, critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles in order to ascertain something.

It would be difficult to comprehend the nature and content of research without an appreciation of the methods we designate as scientific.

According to Scientific Social Research have the following properties:

Reliance on empirical evidence

Use of relevant concepts

Commitment to objectivity

Ethical neutrality

Predictions based on probability

Testing of conclusions through replication

Scientific procedures are a path leading to truth.  In the next section of the book issues of what, Why, How and whom will be discussed.

There are various measures to study the effects of the environment. Earlier strategies were not that sophisticated and reliable, thus mere have been fascinating development in this field.

Research Designs: research designs start with the paradigm, theories, hypothesis, methods, analysis, results and implementations and conclusions. This field uses a variety of study methods ranging from field to laboratory settings tutoring their research approach to the particular features of the setting under study and the species have been used along with experimental methods in both laboratory and fields settings. This varied and flexible approach is especially important because of the complex nature of environment behaviour relationship which confronts research with unique methodological challenges. For example, to study the behaviour of patients in a hospital setup naturalistic observation methods are used, experiment method is used to study and analyze how crowding affects behaviour, quasi experience design is used to learn how urban crime rates are influenced by the contrasting feature of the physical design of two housing project.    

Environment study grew rapidly in the 1960s but the origin can be traced back to 1947 when two types of research Roger Barker and Herbert Wright tackled real-world activities in their natural complexity and diversity recording behaviour. Environment impact is experienced walking to school, in activities such as buying groceries and engaging in conversation. They studied people behaviour as it occurred in natural contexts. They defined the environment unit they were interested in as a behaviour setting. A behaviour setting included a particular pattern of behaviour along with the environment and temporal features that surrounded the behaviour. They also proposed a new field of study called ecological psychology- with the major goal was to study and learn how people behaviour and development are influenced by the physical environment that is a part of their everyday lives. Wicker (1979) has recently applied the principles of ecological psychology to study the behavioural consequences of overpopulation in a variety of human settings.

Environmental Design Paradigms:–  Proshanty (1972) points out that the environment is problem-oriented in that it attempts to answer a wide a range of practical question asked by architects, interior designers and city planners. Central to the concern of the architects and designers, Kiyosh Inzum (1965) describe some of the ways in which physical features and human activities are interrelated in architecture design. At one extreme are buildings designed primarily to contain machinery equipment and another inanimate object. At other extreme are building designed to solely contain human beings- nursing homes, penitential psychiatric hospitals and housing in general between. Thus there are buildings used to contain both people and object in varying proportions libraries laboratories stores officers etc.

An important body of applied research in this field has attempted to assess attitudes of people towards features of the natural environment. Such decision can thus be used to develop environmental science on one hand and recreational sites and preservation programs for the natural landscape. Use-based environment assessments might also be used in the management of natural water resources and decisions involving the science for the recreational or industrial development of water resources. 

Environment stress models have been applied in efforts to understand how people react to a wide range of environmental stressors, such as excessive heat, high noise level and crowding. Other theories have proposed that certain types of environmental setting, such as those that are overcrowding or low in privacy restrict behavioural freedom to people. Several investigators have proposed theories to explain the negative effects that crowded setting sometimes have on people. Some theories have suggested that a high level of crowding produces excesses of social and sensory information that overload an individual capacity to process them.

Economic models emphasize the point that environmental assets and the services generated by them be valued in monetary terms.  Many people would answer that is negative.  But if environmental effects are to be taken into consideration in economic decision-making, then there is no alternative but to attempt to put monetary values on them.  By measuring the value of environmental assets in monetary terms, one is not “valuing the environment” in itself.  Rather one is estimating “the value of things” from the environment through observed individual human economic behaviour.

Many people are totally against the idea of valuing the environment in monetary terms.  They suggest that the environment is “beyond price”, meaning that it is infinitely valued.  As far as the function of the environment as providing basic life support system is concerned, it may indeed be so.  Without the minimum ‘Critical Natural Capital’, life on the planet would not be possible.  Given that there is no substitute for this critical natural capital, we can’t afford to play with it.  However, when it comes to environmental assets in a broader sense, society’s behaviour does not conform to the idea of valuing environmental assets infinitely. If environmental assets were of the infinite value we would never allow any form of environmental degradation, yet no society devotes all of its GNP to environmental protection.  OECD countries typically spend 1-2 per cent of this GNP on it.  There can, however, not be much dispute by if the infinite value is meant that the environmental assets have very high values.

Often, private individuals and firms or governments, do not appreciate and properly assess the total economic value of environmental assets and services.  This is a major cause of environmental degradation.  The social costs of environmental degradation, i.e. their opportunity costs, are given by the total economic value consisting of direct and indirect use, option and existence values discussed above.

Private individual’s and firm’s activities leading to environmental degradation are based on their calculation of private costs of environmental degradation.  The private cost, however, does not reflect the full social cost.  The resulting environmental degradation is therefore socially inefficient.  It is a result of market failure.  The governments can similarly err in evaluating the worth of the environmental assets and services.  Their activities can also lead to environmental degradation which is socially inefficient.

Research Strategies for Studying Environment & Ecology

  1. Co-relational studies.
  2. Experimental studies in laboratory settings.
  3. Small scale fields settings.
  4. Diverse research strategies.
  5. Case studies.
  6. Evaluation studies.
  7. Econometric studies.
  8. Time series studies.

  1. Correlation studies: – based census data: It is based on study relationship between density and social pathology as reflected by cause data or over statistical records e.g. mere maybe a comparison between mortality, mental illness and serious crime in the densely populated region and sparsely populated suburbs.
  2. Experimental studies: – A more recent research strategy 1960’s involved an experiment in lab settings. Initial studies were dared on animals in controlled settings the god of this is study is to establish a casual like between crowding and social effects on humans. Later were also done as humans.
  3. Study of the environment in the small-scale setting: – Most recent strategy such as – dormitories stores etc includes – survey –questionnaires etc.

Diverse research strategiesEach strategy has its strength and weakness. In some animals studies, it is the size of a group that is more important man me space available to it also effect of density have inserted with other variables such as species type situation etc.

Other Methodological Considerations:

Methodological approaches for environmental studies

There is a number of models and approaches to study the environment and ecology.

Measuring Environmental Values, impact assessment, people’s reactions, environmental protection and crisis etc. there are many Economics based approaches issues and approaches.

They are

  • Market values
  • Indirect methods
  • Contingent valuation

Some of the indirect methods are:

  • Preventive expenditure
  • Replacement cost technique
  • Human capital technique
  • Travel cost method

Other Methods include

  • Technical coefficient and the value of Human Life
  • Epidemiological studies
  • Property value and Air Pollutants
  • Survey techniques

Environmental issues are too vital to be left out of economic decision making.  Social cost-benefit analysis cannot be complete without taking into consideration environmental considerations.  In this chapter, we discuss various methods that have been suggested for measuring environmental values.

It is not easy to assess the environmental effects of a project.  What types of physical environmental effects would a project cause and to what extent, can rarely be answered satisfactorily?  There is always an element of uncertainty associated with there effects.  Most large investment projects now require environmental impact assessment (EIA) that estimates the environmental effects of the projects.  Often these EIAs churn out estimates of the effects, which are not only incomplete but also, devoid of scientist rigour.

Even if the physical effects are assessed with a reasonable degree of accuracy and certainty, the next problem one encounters is how to assign economic values to these effects.  It is a widely held view that a market economy does not value all aspects of the environment appropriately.  Markets and prices may not exist for many of the environmental effects that require the valuation.  Even if market prices exist, they may be distorted for various reasons.  The environmental effects of big projects are very large.  In such cases, the project may actually alter prices.  For these various reasons, indirect methods are used for valuation of the environmental effects.  There are a number of techniques developed by economists who attempt to value the environmental effects. Before discussing these various techniques it needs to be noted that total economic value (TEV) of environmental assets consists of use and non-use values.  The total economic value has four component

 TEV = Direct use values + Indirect use values + Option value + Existence value

Let us consider the case of a tropical forest.  Direct values are the resources and services provided directly by the forest such as habitat and food for indigenous people, timber and minor non-timber products.  Indirect use values of environmental assets are essentially their ecological functions, which indirectly support economic activity and human welfare.  Tropical forests, for example, protect adjacent eco-systems, provide watershed protection, and our a store of CO2.  Option value is a value placed on an option that allows for use of the environment in the future.  The amount individuals would be willing to pay to conserve a tropical forest, or at least some of its uses, for future would be its option value.  Existence value of an environmental asset in the value placed on it independent of its any actual or possible future use.  It relates to the valuation of the resources as a unique asset in itself, an object of intrinsic value.  Existence value of tropical forests arises because people simply want them to exist, even if they are never likely to ever see or use them in any way.

Environmental Impact Assessment: includes Environmental Inventory; Environmental Assessment; Environment Impact Statement; Historical Perspective; Environmental Assessment Process; Goals of EIA Process need to emphasize methodological issues related to the following aspects:

  • Air Environment
  • Water Environment
  • Noise Environment
  • Socio-Economic Environment
  • Cultural Environment
  • Biological Environment
  • People’s Participation
  • Case Studies are also important in this regard. Some examples are
  • Air Pollution Monitoring
  • Ganga Action Plan: The study of Ganga: The Holy River; Ganga; From Gomukh to the Bay of Bengal; Ganga; Its importance, Ganga; Overuse, Abuse and Pollution; What is River Pollution? What are the Principal Sources of Pollution? How to measure the extent of pollution? Concern for the River; Formulation of the Ganga Action Plan; what does the Action Plan seek to do? River Front Facilities; Low-Cost Sanitation; Construction of Electric Crematoria, Pollution from Industries; Scientific Content in the Context of Ganga Action Plan; Public Involvement in the Ganga Action Plan; Monitoring of Water Quality; Recycling Sewage; Where we went wrong. What do we need to do? Can people’s participation help in this project?Industrial Pollution: Some Case Studies Pollution Control Aspects of Fertilizer Industries; Ammonia Plant Effluents; Removal of Carbon; Oil Removal; Hydrogen Sulphide Removal; Nitrogen-Wash Tail Gas; Ammonium Sulphate Plant; Phosphoric Acid Plant; Solid Effluent; Liquid Effluent; Gaseous Effluent; Pollution Control in Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemical Units; Characteristics of Liquid Effluent; Refineries; Petrochemical Industries; Refinery Liquid Waste-Treatment Methods; Implant Measures; Steam Stripping; Oxidation; Removal of Phenols; Biological Treatment; Disposal of Sludge’s; Treatment of Liquid Effluents from Petrochemical Industries.

    Environmental Audit: Case studies Indian Scenario Advantage of Audit; Environmental Audit.

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